WASHINGTON (AFP) ― Virgin America, JetBlue and Hawaiian Airlines emerged as the best-performing U.S. air carriers in 2013, a year that generally saw improvements in air travel.

Overall, airline performance “was the highest since 1991,” according to the 24th annual Airline Quality Rating, compiled by Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University and Wichita State University.

There were fewer involuntary denied boardings and customer complaints compared to 2012, although performance dipped somewhat in terms of on-time arrivals and baggage handling, the study suggested.

“When you look at the past 14 years, you find that the airline industry performs most efficiently when the system isn’t stressed by high passenger volume and the number of airplanes in the air,” said study coauthor Dean Headley, an associate professor of marketing at Wichita State.

Virgin America and JetBlue took first and second place, as they did in the 2012 ranking, while Hawaiian moved up two places to No. 3, followed by Delta and Alaska.